Aldosterone controls Na⁺ and K⁺ balance.

Hyperthyroidism increases metabolism and causes eye protrusion.

Cortisol elevates during stress to maintain blood glucose.

PTH increases calcium via bone resorption and kidney retention.

Glucagon increases blood sugar by glycogen breakdown.

FSH promotes follicular development and estrogen secretion.

GH excess before epiphyseal closure leads to gigantism.

GnRH is released in pulses to maintain FSH and LH balance.

Primary hyperaldosteronism leads to sodium retention and hypertension.

Excess ADH leads to water retention and hyponatremia.

Deiodinase enzyme activates T4 into biologically active T3.

ADH deficiency causes excessive urine output and thirst.

It is due to adrenal cortex insufficiency causing low cortisol.

Testosterone develops beard, voice, and muscle mass.

Many peptide hormones act via cAMP, including glucagon.

Growth hormone (GH) affects tissues directly and also stimulates IGF-1 from the liver (tropic).

ACTH stimulation test distinguishes adrenal vs pituitary origin.

Growth hormone deficiency before puberty leads to pituitary dwarfism.

GH suppression after glucose load is diagnostic of acromegaly.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases calcium by acting on bones, kidneys, and intestines.

Tumor of adrenal medulla producing catecholamines.

Estrogen promotes growth of endometrium and secondary female traits.

These are classic features of Cushing’s syndrome due to excess cortisol.

Tumor compresses optic chiasma leading to bitemporal hemianopia.

ADH acts on the collecting ducts of kidneys to increase water reabsorption.

Corpus luteum produces progesterone to maintain pregnancy.

High prolactin levels cause spontaneous milk discharge.

Thyroxine determines oxygen consumption and heat production.

Accidental removal of parathyroid glands causes hypocalcemia.

Increased plasma osmolality triggers ADH secretion from posterior pituitary.

Lack of iodine decreases thyroid hormone synthesis.

Elevated prolactin inhibits gonadotropins causing infertility and gynecomastia.

Congenital hypothyroidism leads to mental retardation and stunted growth.

Diabetes insipidus causes water imbalance due to ADH deficiency, not glucose abnormality.

Thyroid gland regulates basal metabolic rate through thyroxine.

ADH regulates reabsorption of water in kidneys.

High TSH and low T4 levels confirm hypothyroidism.

Cortisol exerts negative feedback on ACTH and CRH release.

Thyroid gland lies anteriorly in the neck below the larynx.

Prolactin from anterior pituitary stimulates milk production.

Chronic renal failure causes hypocalcemia leading to PTH overproduction.

Pituitary failure causes both low TSH and low T4 levels.

Zona glomerulosa produces mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone.

Low sodium, high potassium, and low cortisol are diagnostic.

Steroid hormones like cortisol are lipid-soluble and act through nuclear receptors.

Addison’s disease increases ACTH leading to melanin deposition.

Suppression of adrenal cortex due to feedback inhibition.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus due to insulin deficiency.

Negative feedback regulates insulin based on blood glucose levels.

It is an autoimmune destruction of thyroid gland causing hypothyroidism.